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Summary
- Early Life and Background
- Accession to the Throne
- Early Reign and Revolts
- Military Campaigns
- Government and Reforms
- Personal Life
- Death and Succession
Key Facts And Information
Let’s know more about Darius the Great!
Darius the Great was a powerful king of the Persian Empire from 522 BCE to 486 BCE. He expanded the empire greatly, making it one of the largest in history. Darius organised the empire into different regions, called satrapies, each ruled by a satrap or governor. This made the empire easier to manage.
Darius is also known for his military efforts. He led several campaigns to protect and expand his empire, including the first Persian invasion of Greece. In 490 BCE, the Persians were defeated at the Battle of Marathon. Even though this was a setback, Darius’s reign helped strengthen and grow the empire.
Darius the Great
Early Life and Background of Darius the Great
- Darius I, later called Darius the Great, was born around 550 BCE into a noble Persian family from the Achaemenid dynasty. He was the oldest of five sons of Hystaspes, who was an important man in the empire and later became governor (satrap) of Bactria when Cambyses II was king.
- The name of Darius’s mother is not certain. Some historians believe she was named Rhodogune, while others, based on new discoveries at Persepolis, say she was Irdabama, a rich landowner from a powerful Elamite family.
- Before he became king, Darius worked in the royal court and had military experience. The Greek historian Herodotus wrote that Darius served as a spearman during Cambyses II’s campaign in Egypt. This job likely meant he was close to the king, trusted, and held an honourable position. His father also served in the army of Cyrus the Great and was well respected at court.
Accession to the Throne
- After the death of Cambyses II in 522 BCE, a man appeared claiming to be Bardiya, the younger brother of Cambyses. This man took the throne, but Darius claimed that he was not really Bardiya. According to Darius, the man was actually Gaumata, a Magian priest who looked like Bardiya and pretended to be him. In Darius’s version of events, Cambyses secretly killed Bardiya, but no one knew about it.
- While Cambyses was away fighting in Egypt, the people grew unhappy with his rule. On 11 March 522 BCE, a revolt started, and by 1 July, the people accepted Gaumata as their new king, thinking he was Bardiya. But no one in the royal family dared to challenge him, except for Darius.
- At the time, Darius was a royal official, serving as lance-bearer to Cambyses, a high position in the king’s army. After Cambyses died, Darius prayed for help and teamed up with six noblemen, Otanes, Intaphernes, Gobryas, Hydarnes, Megabyzus and Aspathines, who also wanted to get rid of Gaumata. Together, in September 522 BCE, they killed Gaumata and took control of the empire.
- After killing Gaumata, the seven men discussed what kind of government Persia should have. Otanes wanted a democracy and Megabyzus wanted rule by a few nobles, but Darius argued for a monarchy, where one person would have full power. He said that a monarchy would be more stable, so he convinced the others to choose him as king.
- To decide who would be the king, they came up with a strange test. They agreed to meet on horseback at sunrise, and the man whose horse neighed first at the rising sun would become king. According to the story, Darius’s servant Oebares had a clever idea. He rubbed his hands on a mare that Darius’s horse liked. Then, before the test, Oebares held his hands near Darius’s horse. The horse smelled the mare and neighed first. At the same moment, lightning and thunder struck, which everyone took as a sign from the gods. The other men then accepted Darius as king.
- Some historians think that Darius’s version of the story might not be completely true. According to some Greek writers, Cambyses had left Patizeithes in charge of the empire when he went to Egypt. After Bardiya was murdered by an official named Prexaspes, Patizeithes put his brother Gaumata on the throne because he looked like Bardiya. When the noble Otanes found out, he formed a group of seven, including Darius, to overthrow Gaumata. The very next day, Darius was made king.
- However, many modern scholars believe that Darius’s story was made up to hide the fact that he overthrew the real Bardiya. Darius was not directly related to Cyrus the Great, and he had no clear right to the throne. To make his rule seem more legitimate, he claimed that both he and Cyrus came from a shared royal ancestor called Achaemenes, even though Darius’s family actually came from a different part of the empire.
Early Reign and Revolts
- After Darius became king, his rule was immediately challenged by revolts across the Persian Empire. Although he had taken the throne by removing Gaumata, his position was not secure and many people still supported the previous rulers. Darius faced rebellions in several parts of the empire soon after his coronation.
- Darius first moved to the city of Ecbatana, where he learnt that Bardiya’s supporters had started uprisings in places like Elam and Babylonia. In Elam, the leader of the revolt, Aschina, was captured and executed, which helped end the rebellion there.
- Darius then turned his attention to Babylonia, where the rebellion had continued for several months. After gaining control of Babylonia, Darius found out that a revolt had also started in Bactria, a province that had originally been loyal to him. To make matters worse, other regions, including Persis (his homeland), Media, Parthia, Assyria and Egypt, also broke into revolt.
- By 522 BCE, Darius was facing unrest across much of his empire. Darius had the loyalty of a strong army, which was led by his trusted noblemen, including the six men who helped him overthrow Gaumata. Thanks to their support, Darius was able to suppress the revolts. Within a year, he had put down the rebellions.
- Darius himself claimed to have defeated nine ‘false kings’ in the process of regaining control of the empire. He recorded these victories in the Behistun Inscription, a stone monument where he described his battles and the challenges he faced. The inscription helped strengthen his claim to the throne and showed that he had the divine right to rule.
- Darius also had problems with his own nobles early in his reign, especially with Intaphernes. The nobles had agreed not to disturb Darius when he was with a woman, but when Intaphernes was stopped by two officers, he got angry and attacked them, cutting off their ears and noses.
- Worried about a possible rebellion, Darius asked the other nobles if they supported Intaphernes. They all denied it. Though Darius found no plot, he was still worried and ordered the death of Intaphernes’s family.
Military Campaigns of Darius the Great
- Darius is known for his many military campaigns that helped expand and strengthen the Persian Empire. His campaigns took him across different regions, from Egypt to the Indus Valley, and even into Europe.
Egyptian Campaign
- Darius became involved in Egypt during a time of unrest after the death of Cambyses II. Egypt had been under Persian control since 525 BCE, but a rebellion broke out when a local Egyptian prince, who called himself Pharaoh Petubastis III, led a revolt. The reasons for the rebellion are unclear, but it might have been due to heavy taxes placed on the people by Aryandes, the Persian satrap of Egypt.
An Egyptian cartouche of Darius I
- When Darius heard about the rebellion, he quickly decided to take action. According to the historian Polyaenus, he took advantage of a time when the Egyptians were mourning the death of a sacred bull. Darius made a public offer, promising a large reward to anyone who could bring a new sacred bull. This act impressed the Egyptians, and many of them decided to support Darius. As a result, the rebellion was quickly put down, and Darius regained control of Egypt.
- In 497 BCE, Darius took another important step in securing his control over Egypt. Persian satrap Aryandes was accused of treason, mainly because he had started issuing his own coins, a sign that he might be trying to break away from the Persian Empire. Darius saw this as a challenge to his authority and ordered Aryandes’s execution to remind others of the consequences of disobeying the king.
Invasion of the Indus Valley
- Darius’s invasion of the Indus Valley in 516 BCE was a significant part of his expansion of the Persian Empire. After securing regions like Bactria and Aria, Darius turned his attention to the east and took control of lands along the Indus River. His conquest of the Indus Valley extended the empire from the Balkans in the west to the Indus River in the east.
- Darius first established control over Gandhara, an area now divided between Pakistan and Afghanistan, by 518 BCE, according to the Behistun inscription. The exact boundaries of the territory Darius controlled are not entirely clear, but it likely included parts of modern Sindh and the middle and lower Indus Valley.
- According to Greek historian Herodotus, Darius sent the Greek explorer Scylax of Caryanda to explore the Indus River. Scylax’s journey took around 30 months as he sailed down the river, mapping the area and opening up new trade routes. Taxila, located in modern-day Pakistan, is believed to have been the centre of Persian rule in the Indus Valley.
Babylonian Revolt
- The Babylonian Revolt against Darius took place around 522 BCE after Bardiya was murdered. When Darius claimed the throne, he was forced to confront several revolts, especially in the eastern regions of the empire. He led his armies to suppress each of these rebellions to secure his rule.
- The revolt in Babylon, led by Nebuchadnezzar III, was one of the biggest challenges he faced. The trouble began when Otanes, one of Darius’s generals, withdrew many of the Persian soldiers from Babylon to deal with other uprisings.
- Without the Persian forces, the Babylonians saw an opportunity to rebel. Darius, feeling betrayed, gathered a large army and marched towards Babylon. However, when he arrived, he found the city gates shut and its defences strongly fortified.
- For over a year, Darius and his army could not break through the city walls. Darius tried various tactics to capture the city, even copying some of the methods used by Cyrus the Great when he conquered Babylon. Despite his efforts, he was unable to retake the city.
- The turning point came when one of Darius’s officers, Zopyrus, came up with a clever plan to pretend to desert the Persian side and join the Babylonians. He gained their trust, and over time he was able to help Darius’s army. With Zopyrus’s assistance, the Persian forces surrounded the city, and after a long siege, they finally overcame the rebels and retook Babylon.
European Scythian Campaign
- Darius’s European Scythian campaign took place around 514 BCE. He wanted to expand the Persian Empire into Europe and secure control over the Scythian tribes who lived in what is now Ukraine and southern Russia. The Scythians were known for their mobility and skill in battle, so Darius needed to defeat them to protect his empire’s northern borders.
- To begin the campaign, Darius crossed the Bosphorus Strait with his army using a bridge made of boats. He then marched into Scythian territory with his general, Megabazus. However, the Scythians avoided direct confrontation. Instead of fighting, they retreated deeper into their land, destroying crops, poisoning wells and cutting off supply routes to prevent the Persian army from finding food and water. This tactic made it difficult for Darius to secure any real victory.
- Darius chased the Scythians for several months, but they continued to evade him, leading to frustration. He sent a letter to their king, Idanthyrsus, demanding that the Scythians either fight or surrender.
- Idanthyrsus responded by saying that they would not fight unless the Persians desecrated the graves of their ancestors. The Scythians had no cities or valuable land to lose, so they continued to use their hit-and-run tactics.
- Although Darius was unable to defeat the Scythians in battle, his army still achieved some successes. They captured a city called Gelonos, belonging to one of the Scythians’ allies, the Budini. The city was burned to the ground. Darius also built a series of forts along the Oarus River to protect the area and secure his position. However, his army was suffering from hunger, sickness and exhaustion, so he decided to retreat back to Persia.
- The campaign failed to achieve its main goals. Darius was unable to force the Scythians into a direct battle or secure any permanent territory. However, the Scythians were weakened, and Darius had shown that the Persian Empire could reach deep into Europe.
Persian Invasion of Greece
- In 500 BCE, the Persian Empire was still young, and it wanted to expand. However, it was also dealing with revolts from the people it ruled. Darius had to deal with these revolts before he could focus on expanding his empire.
Armies of Darius I
- The Ionian Revolt began after a failed attempt to take Naxos. Persian officials in the region, like the satrap Artaphernes and the tyrant Aristagoras, led the attack. When the expedition failed, Artaphernes wanted to punish Aristagoras, but Aristagoras escaped and declared Miletus a democracy. This inspired other Ionian cities to rebel, and soon they all kicked out their Persian-appointed rulers. Aristagoras then asked for help from mainland Greece, and only Athens and Eretria agreed to send soldiers.
- Athens’ involvement in the revolt was connected to its recent shift to a democracy. In 510 BCE, Athens had overthrown its tyrant, Hippias, with the help of Sparta. Afterwards, Hippias went to Persia, asking for help to return to power in Athens. The Athenians, under Cleisthenes, opposed this idea and established a democracy. This angered Sparta, but Cleisthenes and the Athenians stood firm. As a result, Athens became more hostile towards any form of tyranny, whether it came from Sparta or Persia.
- As part of the revolt, Athens and Eretria sent ships to Asia Minor, attacking the Persian capital of Sardis in 498 BCE. They burned part of the city, but the Persian army quickly chased them back. Darius vowed to punish both Athens and Eretria. The Ionian Revolt had been crushed by 494 BCE, but it set the stage for the Persian invasions of Greece.
- In 492 BCE, Darius sent his general Mardonius to subdue Greece. Mardonius’ campaign was meant to punish Athens and Eretria and also to control other Greek cities. His army marched through Thrace and Macedon, re-subjugating them. However, the campaign ended when a storm wrecked the Persian fleet, and Mardonius was wounded in a raid by a local tribe. Despite this, Mardonius had made it clear that Persia intended to control Greece.
- In 491 BCE, Darius turned to diplomacy and sent ambassadors to Greek cities asking for ‘earth and water’, symbols of submission. Most Greek cities complied, but Athens executed the ambassadors and Sparta threw them into a well. Both Athens and Sparta, despite their past rivalry, would soon face the Persian invasion together.
- The Persian invasion finally came in 490 BCE, when Darius sent his generals Datis and Artaphernes with a large fleet and army. They began by attacking various Greek islands, including Naxos, before moving to Eretria, where they laid siege to the city. After a week, Eretria fell, and its people were enslaved.
- The final part of the invasion came at the Battle of Marathon. The Persian army landed at Marathon, and the Athenians, joined by a small group from Plataea, marched to block the Persian forces. Athens sent a runner, Pheidippides, to Sparta to ask for help, but the Spartans couldn’t send reinforcements until after a religious festival. So, the Athenians had to fight alone. Despite being outnumbered, they managed to defeat the Persians. This victory was the beginning of the Greeks’ resistance against the Persian Empire.
Government and Reforms of Darius the Great
- Darius the Great made many changes to improve how the Persian Empire was ruled. Since the empire was very large, Darius divided it into 20 provinces, called satrapies. Each satrapy had a governor, called a satrap, who was in charge of collecting taxes, keeping peace and carrying out the king’s orders.
- Darius made sure no governor became too powerful by sending secret agents, called the ‘King’s Eyes and Ears’, to watch them and report back. This helped stop corruption and kept governors loyal.
- Darius also created a fair tax system. He asked a group of trusted officials to decide how much tax each satrapy should pay each year. The taxes were used for roads, the army, and running the government. Darius introduced gold and silver coins called darics, which made trade easier because people no longer had to weigh metal for every purchase.
- Travel and trade improved with better roads, including the Royal Road, which stretched over 1,500 miles from the Aegean Sea to the Persian capital, Susa. Royal messengers could travel this road in just a week thanks to more than 100 courier stations.
- Darius also improved the legal system. He based many of his laws on the earlier Babylonian laws of Hammurabi and even copied some of them. His judges had to be honest and were often replaced if they were corrupt. Punishments could be harsh, like blinding or cutting off body parts, but Darius tried to make them match the seriousness of the crime. His legal reforms were popular and remained in use long after his death.
- Darius believed he ruled with the blessing of the Zoroastrian god Ahura Mazda, and many of his laws were made in the god’s name. He wrote about this in his inscriptions, saying that Ahura Mazda helped him become king and keep order in the empire. Even so, Darius allowed people in his empire to keep their own religions, as long as they stayed peaceful and loyal to the Persian crown.
- Darius also worked on irrigation projects to bring water to dry lands. He improved a system called qanats, which were tunnels that carried underground water to farms and villages. This helped farming grow and brought more people to settle in dry parts of the empire.
Personal Life of Darius the Great
- Darius married several women, most of them from powerful families. His most famous wife was Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus the Great, who had started the Persian Empire. Darius loved Atossa more than his other wives. She was very respected and had a lot of power in the royal court. Together, they had four sons: Xerxes, Achaemenes, Masistes and Hystaspes.
- Darius also married Artystone, another daughter of Cyrus the Great. They had two sons: Arsames and Gobryas. He married Parmys, the daughter of Bardiya (Cyrus’s son), and had a son named Ariomardus with her. He married his niece Phratagune and had two more sons, Abrokomas and Hyperantes. He also married Phaidyme, the daughter of a nobleman named Otanes, but it is not known if they had any children.
- Before marrying into the royal family, Darius had already married the daughter of his friend Gobryas, who was one of his bodyguards. Her name is not known, but they had three sons together: Artobazanes, Ariabignes and Arsamenes.
Death and Succession
- Darius died in 486 BCE after ruling the Persian Empire for about 36 years. Near the end of his reign, he started planning a second invasion of Greece. This was after the Persians had been defeated at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BCE. Darius wanted to lead this new army himself, unlike before when he had sent his general, Datis. He spent three years gathering soldiers and ships to prepare for the war.
- But before the invasion could happen, a big revolt started in Egypt. Darius had to focus on stopping the revolt, and this made his health worse. He became very sick with an unknown illness and suffered for about a month. Some historians believe the stress of handling the rebellion may have made him sicker. Darius died not long after, at around 64 years old.
- After his death, his body was preserved and placed in a tomb he had built for himself at Naqsh-e Rostam, near the city of Persepolis. His tomb was cut into the side of a rocky cliff and had carvings and writings on it. One inscription called him the ‘Great King, King of Kings, King of all nations, King of this large earth, son of Hystaspes, a Persian, an Aryan with Aryan blood.’
- When Darius died, there was a disagreement over who would be the next king. His oldest son, Artobazanes, who was born before Darius became king, believed he should take the throne. But Xerxes, Darius’s son with Queen Atossa, also wanted to be king. Because Atossa came from the royal family and had a lot of influence, Xerxes was chosen as the next ruler. He became Xerxes I and continued his father’s work, including preparing for another invasion of Greece.
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Frequently Asked Questions About Darius the Great
- Who was Darius the Great?
Darius I, also known as Darius the Great, was the third king of the Achaemenid Empire. He ruled from 522 BCE to 486 BCE and is known for expanding the Persian Empire to its greatest size and improving administration, law, and infrastructure.
- How did Darius the Great come to power?
Darius claimed the throne after the death of Cambyses II and a brief rule by a man claiming to be Bardiya (Cambyses' brother). Darius said this man was an imposter and overthrew him with the help of noblemen, securing the throne in 522 BCE.
- What were Darius's major accomplishments?
He expanded the empire into Europe, India, and North Africa, built the Royal Road to improve communication and trade, introduced a standard currency (the daric), created a system of provinces (satrapies) with appointed governors, and commissioned the construction of Persepolis and other major works.