Seleucid Empire Facts & Worksheets

• To legitimise the Seleucids’ rule, the dynasty claimed that Apama, Antiochus’s mother, was the daughter of Darius III, thus making them rightful lords of the former Achaemenid Empire.
• In 261 BCE, Antiochus II Theos succeeded his father Antiochus I Soter as basileus. Among his inheritance was the war against Ptolemaic Egypt during the Second Syrian War. Ultimately, the war ended with a peace treaty with Ptolemy II, which included a divorce from his wife Laodice and marriage to Ptolemaic princess Berenice. 
• While the divorce from Laodice was settled with land grants in Hellespont, Cyzicus, Illion and Caria, as well as tax exemptions, the sudden deaths of Ptolemy II and Antiochus II left her influential and powerful. 
• A power struggle ensued between Berenice’s infant son Antiochus and Laodice’s eldest son Seleucus (later Seleucus II), ultimately leading to the former’s death. Enraged by the deaths of his sister and nephew, Ptolemy III waged war against the Seleucids, known as the Third Syrian War.
• Proclaimed by his mother as king, Seleucus II Callinicus Pogon retained his power over Asia Minor. Despite the threat of Ptolemy III, Seleucid II recovered Babylonia, Mesopotamia, Antioch and northern Syria. However, the Seleucids were defeated in Ephesus, Ainos, Maroneia and several cities on Hellespont.  
• In 241 BCE, a treaty was agreed. Ptolemy recognised Seleucus as king, and the border between the two empires was finally settled. However, Ptolemy retained his control over Thrace, Ephesus and Pieria. Pieria was a significant trading hub of the Seleucid Empire, and it also contained the tomb of Seleucus I.  
• In 225 BCE, Seleucus II died due to a fall from his horse. He was briefly succeeded by his eldest son Alexander (named Seleucus III Soter). 
• Seleucus III continued his father’s war against Attalus I of Pergamon in Asia Minor during his rule. Two years after his ascension, he was assassinated in Anatolia and succeeded by his younger brother Antiochus III the Great in 222 BCE.  
• Antiochus III the Great ruled the Seleucid Empire from 223 BCE until 187 BCE. Despite his ascension at 18, Antiochus III restored much of the empire’s former territories. Under the influence of Minister Hermeias, Antiochus III launched an attack on Ptolemaic Syria. However, his earlier victories were nulled after his defeat at the Battle of Raphia against Ptolemy IV in 217. In 209 BCE, he invaded Parthia, Hyrcania and Bactria. 
• When the Ptolemaic throne was succeeded by the infant Ptolemy V Epiphanes in 205/204 BCE, Antiochus III set his sights on the former Ptolemaic dominions in Asia Minor. In 192, he invaded Greece. However, he was forced to withdraw to Asia Minor by the Roman army led by Manius Acilius. 
• By 188 BCE, under the Treaty of Apamea, Antiochus abandoned his campaigns against the Roman Republic. The weakening of the Seleucid prompted many provinces to reassert their independence. By 187 BCE, Antiochus III was killed while looting at Elymaïis, Persia. 
• Seleucus IV Philopator was the second son of Antiochus III. In 193 BCE, his father made him heir following the death of his elder brother, Antiochus, the young king. During his rule, he renewed the Seleucid alliance with the Achaean League, which played a key role in the expansion of Rome into Greece. He also held his son, Demetrius I, hostage in Rome as agreed in the Treaty of Apamea.
• In 175 BCE, Seleucus IV was assassinated by one of his bureaucrats, Heliodorus. While ancient records did not mention the motive, some believed that it was because of power. Upon Seleucus IV’s death, Heliodorus took over as regent on behalf of the young Antiochus.
• Despite his proclamation as king following the death of Seleucus IV, young Antiochus did not hold power. The boy was first represented by minister Heliodorus, who was soon disposed of by Antiochus IV, Antiochus’ uncle. In 170/169 BCE, young Antiochus died and was succeeded by Antiochus IV.  
• Many saw Antiochus IV as a usurper, a son of Antiochus III the Great. While Seleucus IV’s son Demetrius was hostage in Rome and young Antiochus was murdered, Antiochus IV claimed the throne. His rule was known for its extravagance, as seen in banquets and parades.
• Furthermore, his infamous image was carved due to the persecution of the Jewish people of Judea and Samaria and the rebellion of the Jewish Maccabees. 
• While attempting to consolidate control over his eastern territories, Antiochus IV died near Persis (part of present-day Iran). Different historical accounts surround his death. Polybius and Diodorus Siculus mentioned a disease, while the Book of the Maccabees attributed his death to divine punishment. 
• Antiochus V Eupator succeeded his father as ruler of the Seleucid Empire in 172 BCE. At age 9, Antiochus V ruled, guided by his regent, General Lysias. At the time of Antiochus V’s ascension, Demetrius, who was still kept in Rome, was 22 years old. 
• On Lysias’s advice, Antiochus V offered peace with the Jewish people. However, after accepting peace, Antiochus V and Lysias broke the promise and tore down the walls of Jerusalem before their departure. When they returned to the capital of Antioch, Philip, a confidant of Antiochus IV, was already in control. 
• Lysias successfully defeated Philip and retook the city. However, the external threat from Rome continued. In 162 BCE, a Roman envoy was assassinated in Laodicea as a consequence of the Romans’ unimpeded destruction of the Seleucid warships and hamstringing of their elephants.
• At that time, Demetrius escaped Rome and returned to Syria. Soon, Antiochus V and regent Lysias were executed. 
• Revolts and external threats characterised Demetrius I Soter’s rule. He suppressed the Maccabean Revolt in Judea and the rebellion initiated by the Median satrap Timarchus, where he gained the surname Soter or Savior from the Babylonians. 
• The demise of Demetrius I was attributed to Heracleides, brother of Timachus, who supported the cause of Alexander Balas, a boy who claimed to be Antiochus IV’s son. By 160 BCE, Balas, with the support of the Roman Senate, occupied Ptolemais and proclaimed himself king. The Seleucid Empire then had two kings. Locked in a civil war, Balas defeated Demetrius I in 150 BCE.
• Demetrius II Nicator reclaimed the throne in 145 BCE. Under his rule, the Seleucids suffered major defeats against the Parthians under Mithridates I. 
• Other Seleucid kings included:
  • Diodotus Tryphon, a usurper disposing of Antiochus VI, was defeated and ultimately committed suicide in 138 BCE.
  • Antiochus VII Sidetes, younger brother of Demetrius II, restored the Seleucid lands from the Parthians. He was killed in 129 BCE during a battle against Phraates II. 
  • Alexander II Zabinas was a puppet king supported by Ptolemy VIII, who Antiochus VIII Grypus executed. 
  • Antiochus VIII Grypus, son of Demetrius II, faced his half-brother in a civil war and was killed in 96 BCE. 
  • Antiochus X Eusebes, son of Antiochus IX, continued the civil war fought by his father against Seleucus VI Epiphanes.
• Between 94 and 83 BCE, the empire was divided among several weak claimants, including Seleucus VI, Antiochus XI, Philip I and Antiochus XII. 
• Due to the empire’s weakness, Tigranes II of Armenia took over in 83 and remained in power until he was defeated by the Romans in 69 CE. The last Seleucid king was Antiochus XIII Asiaticus, while Philip II Philoromaeus became a client king under Pompey.

Features of the Seleucid Empire

• The Seleucid Empire was one of the largest Hellenistic states. It was divided into satrapies or provinces and governed by satraps or provincial governors following the Achaemenid Persian model, but the rulers were most Macedonian or Greek elites. Seleucia (305–240 BCE) and Antioch (240–63 BCE) served as its capital.
• Due to its vastness, the empire was ineffectively governed. While the king was the supreme ruler, constant revolts, particularly in Judea, Persia and Bactria, made it vulnerable to fragmentation. 
• Among the richest in the ancient world, the Seleucid Empire controlled major trade routes, including the Royal Road and the Silk Road, which linked the Mediterranean to Central Asia, Persia and India. Its fertile lands in Mesopotamia, Syria and Anatolia supplied grain, wine and olives. 
• Their coins were designed in Greek, highly monetised and widely used in the empire. 
• Culturally, Greek was used as the administrative language, yet local languages, such as Aramaic and Persian, persisted. To promote Greek culture, temples, theatres, gymnasiums and polis were constructed. 
• Religiously, while many cities honoured local deities, Greek gods were widely worshipped. However, religious conflicts, such as the Jewish revolts, also emerged due to forced Hellenisation. 
• The Seleucid expansion was due to its army. Modelled after Alexander the Great’s army, the Phalanx infantry was trained to use Macedonian-style spears or sarissas. Furthermore, war elephants imported from India added effectiveness in battle. Inspired by Persian traditions, cataphracts or armoured horsemen were used. The empire also hired Greek, Persian and Galatian mercenaries for extra strength. Controlling the eastern Mediterranean, the Seleucid navy played significant roles in securing trade routes and defending the empire against Ptolemaic Egypt and Rome. 

Extent and Collapse of the Empire

• The Seleucid Empire reached its peak during Antiochus III the Great’s rule between 222 BCE and 187 BCE. Considered one of the wealthiest empires of the ancient world, it can be divided into six key regions, including Asia Minor (Anatolia), Syria and the Levant, Mesopotamia, Persia and Bactria, the Eastern Provinces, and Egypt and the Aegean. 
• Besides the immense realm consolidated by Alexander the Great, it also reached India. Under Seleucus I, a war against King Chandragupta Maurya of the Mauryan Empire occurred in 305 BCE. By 303 BCE, the Seleucid-Mauryan War resulted in a treaty where Seleucus ceded territory west of the Indus and present-day Afghanistan. 
• By 300 BCE, the capital city of Antioch was founded as the centre of administration over the western part of the empire, while the city of Seleucia controlled the eastern regions. 
• In 247 BCE, Arsaces of the Parti tribe revolted against the Seleucid Empire and established a state that later became the Parthian Empire. 
• The massive size of the empire was home to a diverse array of cultures and people. Armenians, Assyrians, Greeks, Persians, Georgians, Mesopotamians, Jews and Medes lived within its bounds. The Seleucids established Greek settlements and encouraged immigration from Greece. They served in the military in replacement of privileges. 
• Despite contributing to a minority of the population, Greek culture influenced non-Greek peoples, a phenomenon called Hellenisation.