What was the League of Armed Neutrality?

The first League of Armed Neutrality was an alliance formed during the late 18th century to protect neutral shipping against the British Royal Navy's interference during the American Revolutionary War.

When was the first League of Armed Neutrality established?

The League was established in 1780 by Catherine the Great of Russia. It included various European powers, such as Denmark-Norway and Sweden.

What were the key principles of the League of Armed Neutrality?

The key principles included: - Free navigation and trade in non-contraband goods for neutral nations during wartime. - The protection of neutral ships against seizure and search by belligerent nations. - The principle is that neutral flags protect cargo unless it is contraband.

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Summary

British naval blockade in the American War of Independence
First League of Armed Neutrality
Second League of Armed Neutrality

Key Facts And Information

Let’s find out more about the League of Armed Neutrality!

During the American War of Independence, Britain imposed a trade embargo against the American colonies and their allies. The Royal Navy and British privateers conducted unlimited searches of ships at sea, including those of the neutral states. This led Russia to declare an armed neutrality in March 1780, in order to protect neutral trade.

The First League of Armed Neutrality lasted from August 1780 until the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783. During the War of the Second Coalition, the British naval blockade once again upset several neutral states, hence the Second League of Armed Neutrality was formed in December 1800, however, it was short-lived.

A depiction of one of the naval battles during the American War of Independence

British naval blockade in the American War of Independence

The American War of Independence, also known as the American Revolutionary War, was an insurrection by the original Thirteen Colonies against British rule. It officially began in Lexington and Concord in 1775 and escalated to the American Declaration of Independence on 4 July 1776, which rejected British monarchy and aristocracy. The entry of other nations, such as France and Spain, on the side of the American colonists caused more waves to reach the Baltic and White Seas.

The majority of the American War of Independence was fought on land, with several theatres occurring in the colonies.
Although the naval operations during the war were often underestimated, the action on the seas significantly impacted the land battles, as well as the outcome of the conflict.
When the American colonies asserted their independence from Britain, the new nation was in no position to challenge British control over the seas.
On the other hand, the British Royal Navy was the most powerful during this period. In fact, even the French and Spanish navies could not compete with British naval supremacy.
Britain also governed the American colonies’ capacity to engage in international commerce and trade, and so they had to rely on friendly nations to trade for supplies as the war progressed.
The American colonies formed their own navy in 1775 and mainly depended on commerce ships transformed into warships.
The American naval forces recognised that they lacked adequate resources to confront the Royal Navy and instead concentrated their efforts on securing their trade routes.
Additionally, they also responded to the attacks of the Royal Navy with the practice of privateering. American privateering activity kept the Royal Navy busy and enabled Americans to harass British shipping and collect much-needed supplies. This proved to be an impactful strategy implemented by the American naval forces.
Britain’s trade embargo against the American colonies was generally reasonable, as few European powers criticised a country’s right to restrict colonial trade.
The Royal Navy, as well as British privateers, would stop ships at sea, check their cargoes, and send those suspected of breaking the embargo to a British port for adjudication.
France had secretly shipped supplies to the American colonies as early as 1776. The French signed the Treaty of Alliance with the colonists in 1778. As a long-term historical rival of Britain, they extended their support to the colonists by sending troops and financial assistance.
As tensions between Britain and France grew, the former strengthened and expanded its blockade, directing the Royal Navy to seize or destroy French ships it came into contact with.
The British blockade was further widened, and so all vessels, including neutral ships, bound for French ports transporting naval or warlike stores, had to be brought into a British port.
The burden of proof that a neutral ship was not trading contraband cargo fell on the shipowners.
As a consequence, neutral states were considerably affected by the British naval wartime policy.
Spain officially declared its alliance with France and war against Britain in 1779. However, the Spanish had been providing military supplies to the American army as early as 1776.
Spanish troops began to attack British forts in Alabama, Florida and Mississippi. Like the French, Spain was believed to have aided the Americans after their defeat during the Seven Years’ War.
In addition to military supplies and financial aid, the Spanish Navy stationed in the Caribbean was significant as it disrupted British maritime trade routes.

Portrait of Catherine II, also known as Catherine the Great

First League of Armed Neutrality

In 1778, the Danes came up with the idea of an armed neutrality to defend the principle of “free ship, free goods”, as well as the rights of neutral states to trade with the belligerents of war. They also believed that individual north European states could not object to British policy on their own, however, in concert, they had the potential to tip the balance against the Royal Navy, hence safeguarding neutral trade. Such ideas circulated in European capitals, but further action was not taken.
Russia at the time was mostly preoccupied with its own affairs. Its assistance was initially considered by Britain in 1775, particularly the enlistment of Russian troops to fight against the rebelling colonies. The Russian empress, Catherine II, rejected the idea and also took little interest in the American colonies.
As the American War of Independence went on, so did the British blockade, Russian trade was affected by Britain’s naval strategy.

In August 1778, A British merchant ship carrying Russian goods bound for Britain was struck by an American privateer. Catherine II responded to this by directing a squadron to the port to convoy British merchant ships.
In October, British vessels then captured a Russian merchant bound for France with a cargo of hemp and flax. This led Russia’s Foreign Minister to believe that war with Britain was not in Russia’s interest, and subsequently recommended in December that Russia announce its intention to close the White Sea to all commerce raiders. This proposal was accepted by Catherine II, but little came of this action.
In the following months, Britain seized more Russian vessels and declared that convoys of merchant ships by neutral states were not exempt from its unlimited search policy.
This British naval policy was unpopular, and so in late 1779, Catherine II complained to her new ambassador in London about British adjudication on seized Russian cargoes. The British government offered no new instructions to its courts or privateers.
Seizure by belligerents of the war continued:
- In December 1779, Britain seized an escorted Swedish convoy.
- In January 1780, Spain captured a Russian merchant vessel carrying a cargo of corn bound for France and Italy.
- Around this time, news spread that the Royal Navy seized a Dutch convoy.
- The Spanish captured another ship chartered by Russian merchants.
The Russian government strongly protested the naval conflict with Spain. In February 1780, Catherine II ordered a mobilisation of a portion of her fleet without consulting her Council of State or Foreign Minister.
The Russian empress then directed her Foreign Minister to draft instructions to ambassadors in the neutral states, calling them to create a multilateral declaration about the rights of free trade, and to invite them into a treaty to impose such principles.
In February 1780, Russia presented the declaration of an armed neutrality to foreign ambassadors in St Petersburg, laying out several principles for the warring states:

Neutral vessels were free to navigate from port to port and along belligerent coasts without hindrance.
Cargoes in neutral vessels, including those owned by subjects of the belligerents, were immune to seizure, except contraband.
Contraband was defined by the Treaty of Commerce (1766) between Russia and Britain.
Blockaded ports were defined by a sufficient number of ships present or near a port, rendering access to others dangerous.
The above principles would serve as rules regarding adjudications of seized cargoes by Admiralty Courts.

Russia also announced that it was preparing a portion of its fleet to be despatched to the Mediterranean, Atlantic, and North Sea to enforce the decree, which hinted at the possibility of using force.
The Russian declaration reached the governments of the belligerents and was subsequently under consideration. The French and Spanish rulers were quick to acknowledge it, expressing their desires to respect neutral rights.
Meanwhile, the British government was unsure about Catherine II’s motives behind the Russian declaration, as the proposal had the potential to radically change the naval balance of power.
In April, Catherine II proposed to the Netherlands, Denmark, Prussia, Sweden, and Portugal that they establish a league of neutrals.
There were questions from Sweden about how the League would function, specifically the terms of reciprocal protection and mutual assistance. Furthermore, the Russian proposal put the greatest burden and risk on the member-states closest and most vulnerable to British naval power. Therefore, it might be better for Denmark, Sweden, and the Netherlands to negotiate bilateral side-deals with Britain.
In August, Denmark-Norway and Sweden adopted the same policy towards shipping, and so the three states signed bilateral agreements and a tripartite convention constituting the First League.
In January 1781, the Netherlands attempted to join the First League. However, Britain found out before the Dutch could sign the treaty and declared war against its former trading partner.
As a result, the Netherlands was ineligible to join the First League, and the Anglo-Dutch War ensued, which even outlasted the American War of Independence.
Catherine II tried to act as a mediator between Britain and the American colonies, but the siege of Yorktown in 1781 ended any prospects of a peaceful and diplomatic solution to the war.
Prussia, Austria and Portugal joined the First League in 1781. The following year, the Ottoman Empire acceded to the alliance, and in 1783, the Two Sicilies. This left Britain completely isolated.
The signing of the Treaty of Paris (1783) ended the war, and the First League ceased to have any practical function.

Second League of Armed Neutrality

A decade after the First League was established, Europe was once again at war. Since 1792, the French Revolutionary Wars pitted France against Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and several other countries. They are divided into two periods: the War of the First Coalition (1792–1797) and the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802). The first phase saw the French Republic crushing the armies of the First Coalition. This was followed by the formation of the Second Coalition in 1798.

A depiction of one of the battles during the War of the Second Coalition

In pursuit of its primarily maritime, colonial, and commercial interests in the wars, Britain once again turned to means that were offensive to other neutral states, as well as its former allies.
The British, through its powerful Royal Navy, could control the terms of European maritime trade.
Again, they maintained that neutral vessels were not immune to their unlimited search, specifically if they were carrying enemy goods or bound for an enemy port and even when under convoy.
Items such as iron, hemp, timber, pitch, and maize were at all times considered contraband of war.

In November 1800, Russian emperor Paul I placed an embargo on British vessels in Russian ports in response to the British seizure of Malta, following France’s cession of the island to him.
In the following month, the Second League of Armed Neutrality, also known as the League of the North, was formed by Russia, Sweden and Denmark. Prussia joined the alliance in the same month.
In retaliation against the British, the Danes occupied Hamburg, while the Prussians invaded Hanover in 1801.
Following the closing of the Baltic Sea and the German ports and rivers, British commerce and war economy were seriously disrupted.
Furthermore, there was a bread shortage in Britain due to the interruption in shipments.
In March 1801, Paul I was assassinated, thereby eliminating the principal author of the Second League at a time when its members had to deal with British reprisals.
Sir Hyde Parker was commissioned to command the Baltic Fleet in order to break up the northern armed neutrality, with Vice-admiral Horatio Nelson as his second-in-command.
In April, Nelson led a squadron into Copenhagen harbour and persisted in fighting the Battle of Copenhagen until the Danish fleet gave up.
Sweden had already made peace in May. This was followed by the Danes agreeing to an armistice and the Anglo-Russian convention held in June. Consequently, the Second League was broken up, with its forces withdrawn from Hanover, Hamburg, and Lübeck. In return, Britain changed its maritime claims.
Alexander I, who became the new Russian emperor, abandoned the demand for Malta.

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Frequently Asked Questions

What was the League of Armed Neutrality?
The first League of Armed Neutrality was an alliance formed during the late 18th century to protect neutral shipping against the British Royal Navy's interference during the American Revolutionary War.
When was the first League of Armed Neutrality established?
The League was established in 1780 by Catherine the Great of Russia. It included various European powers, such as Denmark-Norway and Sweden.
What were the key principles of the League of Armed Neutrality?
The key principles included:
- Free navigation and trade in non-contraband goods for neutral nations during wartime.
- The protection of neutral ships against seizure and search by belligerent nations.
- The principle is that neutral flags protect cargo unless it is contraband.

League of Armed Neutrality Facts & Worksheets

League of Armed Neutrality facts and information plus worksheet packs and fact file. Includes 5 activities aimed at students 11-14 years old (KS3) & 5 activities aimed at students 14-16 years old (GCSE). Great for home study or to use within the classroom environment.