Napoleon III Facts & Worksheets

• Sixteen members of the National Assembly were arrested in their homes, and around 220 moderate right deputies were also detained. A few republicans attempted to resist, but barricades and street protests were crushed by 30,000 troops. About 300 to 400 opponents were killed, and small uprisings in southern and central France were also quickly put down.
• After the coup, around 26,000 people were arrested, including 4,000 in Paris. Some of the most prominent opponents were sent to the penal colony in French Guiana, thousands were sent to Algeria, expelled from France, or forced to live away from their homes. Press censorship was strictly enforced, and newspapers had to obtain government permission to publish political or social news.
• To show people supported him, Louis Napoleon held a national vote on 20–21 December 1851. People were asked if they agreed with his coup. More than 7.4 million voted yes, about 640,000 voted no, and around 1.7 million did not vote. Some said the vote was not fair, but Napoleon used it to say he had the people’s approval to rule.
• With this mandate, a new constitution was prepared in 1852. It allowed him to serve as president for an unlimited number of ten-year terms and gave him full powers to declare war, sign treaties, make laws, and run the government. Although universal male suffrage remained, the National Assembly’s powers were greatly reduced.
• Napoleon III then prepared to restore the empire. A second referendum was held on 21–22 November 1852, asking the people if he should become emperor. Official results claimed 97 percent support, with over 7.8 million voting yes. On 2 December 1852, exactly one year after the coup, the Second Republic ended and the Second French Empire began. Louis Napoleon took the title Napoleon III, Emperor of the French, and the constitution remained largely the same, but concentrated all real power in his hands.

Policies Under Napoleon III's Rule

Domestic Policies

Economic Modernisation:

• Built 20,000 km of railways by 1870, linking France to neighbouring countries.

• Developed ports, canals, roads, and expanded banking (Crédit Mobilier, Crédit Lyonnais).

• Lowered tariffs to encourage competition and industrial growth.

• Industrial output grew 73%; agricultural production increased by 60%.

Urban Development and Public Works:

• Rebuilt Paris with wide boulevards, sewers, clean water, gas lighting, railway stations, and markets.

• Created large parks (Bois de Boulogne, Parc Montsouris) and small neighbourhood parks.

• Initiated housing schemes for workers and opened clinics for the poor.

Social Reforms:

• Granted workers the right to strike (1864) and organise (1866).

• Limited working hours and improved protection for apprentices.

• Opened schools for girls, libraries, and new university faculties.

• Reduced illiteracy from 40% to 25% by 1869.

Political Control and Liberalisation:

• Imposed press censorship and suppressed opposition following the 1851 coup.

• Arrested or exiled thousands of opponents.

• Later reforms gave the legislature more powers (speaking in debates, amending budgets, public records).

• Popular plebiscites confirmed support for these liberal reforms.

Foreign Policies

European Diplomacy:

• Supported nationalism and the creation of new states, e.g., Italy, over old empires such as Austria.

• Allied with Britain in the Crimean War (1853–1856), defeating Russia and enhancing France’s prestige.

• Supported Italian unification: annexed Savoy and Nice (1860), defeated Austria at Magenta and Solferino (1859).

• Protected the Papal States to appease French Catholics.

Colonial and Global Expansion:

• Seized Cochinchina (southern Vietnam) and established a protectorate over Cambodia.

• Attempted to establish the Second Mexican Empire under Maximilian I, later withdrew under US pressure.

• Proposed an Arab kingdom in Algeria.

• Maintained French influence in China and intervened in Korea.

Military and Diplomatic Strategy:

• Expanded the French navy and strengthened fortifications.

• Negotiated alliances and treaties to safeguard French interests.

• Balanced support for nationalist movements with strategic French objectives.

Decline and Fall: The Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871)

• By the late 1860s, Napoleon III was very weak and unwell. Years of imprisonment, chronic leg and foot pain, heavy smoking, and treatments with opium had left him tired and often in pain. He was unable to ride a horse or move quickly and often had to use a cane. 
• Despite his poor health, he wanted France to remain a strong power in Europe. At the same time, Prussia was growing stronger under Otto von Bismarck, who aimed to unite the German states under Prussian leadership. Bismarck skilfully isolated France and built alliances with the southern German states, while France struggled to find friends in Europe.
• Napoleon III tried to make allies and negotiate for land to keep France safe, including Luxembourg, Belgium, and parts of Germany. However, Britain did not trust him, Italy refused to confront Prussia, and Austria was recovering from its own defeat by Prussia in 1866. France’s army was also not ready for a major war. By 1870, France faced a likely war with Prussia alone.
• The war began after Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern was chosen as a candidate for the Spanish throne. The French public and parliament demanded action. Napoleon III declared war on Prussia on 19 July 1870. French troops were poorly organised, while the German armies were well-prepared and used better weapons. Early battles, such as Wissembourg, Spicheren, and Wörth, ended in heavy French losses.
• Napoleon III went to the front with the army but was too ill to lead effectively. The French army was outmanoeuvered, and on 1 September 1870, at the Battle of Sedan, Napoleon III, surrounded by German forces and under heavy artillery fire, surrendered. 

Exile and Death of Napoleon III

• After his surrender at Sedan, Napoleon III was held captive by the Prussians from 5 September 1870 until 19 March 1871 at Schloss Wilhelmshöhe near Kassel, Germany. He was kept in relatively comfortable conditions, and his wife, Empress Eugénie, even travelled incognito to visit him. 
• During this time, he continued to write political letters and memoranda, hoping for a possible return to power, but the fall of Metz and the changing political situation in France ended any realistic prospect of restoration. By 1 March 1871, the newly elected French National Assembly officially removed him from power and blamed him for France’s defeat.
• Once released by Bismarck following the peace arrangements with Germany, Napoleon III went into exile in England. Arriving on 20 March 1871, he settled with Eugénie, their son, and an entourage at Camden Place in Chislehurst, Kent, a countryside village just outside London. 
• Napoleon III’s health continued to decline in exile, particularly in the summer of 1872, when he underwent surgery to remove gallstones. He died on 9 January 1873 and was originally buried at St Mary’s Catholic Church in Chislehurst. Later, in 1888, his remains were moved, alongside those of his son, who had died in the Anglo-Zulu War, to the Imperial Crypt at St Michael’s Abbey in Farnborough, Hampshire, England.

Personal Life of Napoleon III

• Soon after becoming emperor, Napoleon III looked for a wife who could give him an heir. While still attached to his companion, Harriet Howard, he considered several royal matches, like Princess Carola of Vasa and Princess Adelheid of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, but these were rejected because of politics and religion. 
• He eventually fell in love with Eugénie de Montijo, a young Spanish noblewoman educated in Paris. They married in January 1853, first in a civil ceremony at the Tuileries Palace, and then in a grand religious ceremony at Notre-Dame Cathedral. In 1856, Eugénie gave birth to their only child, Napoléon, Prince Imperial.
• Even after marriage, Napoleon III was known to have many lovers. Some of his mistresses included Harriet Howard, Elisa-Rachel Félix, Virginia Oldoini (Countess of Castiglione), and Marguerite Bellanger. Empress Eugénie resisted his advances after having an heir and focused on her duties as empress. She also worked to improve women’s rights, supporting the first woman to get a French baccalaureate and trying to have the writer George Sand join the Académie française.
• Napoleon III’s private life was affected by poor health. By his late forties, he suffered from kidney problems, bladder stones, arthritis, gout, obesity, and the long-term effects of smoking. Doctors said he had “nervous exhaustion,” which affected his energy and personal life. Despite this, he kept studying, writing about politics, and working on engineering and design projects.