Treaty of Birgham 1290 Facts & Worksheets

Treaty of Birgham 1290 facts and information plus worksheet packs and fact file. Includes 5 activities aimed at students 11-14 years old (KS3) & 5 activities aimed at students 14-16 years old (GCSE). Great for home study or to use within the classroom environment.

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Table of Contents
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    Summary

    • Death of Alexander III of Scotland
    • Recognition of the succession of Margaret, Maid of Norway
    • Marriage negotiations

    Key Facts And Information

    Let’s know more about the Treaty of Birgham 1290!

    Alexander III of Scotland ruled from 1249 to 1286. All his children predeceased him, prompting him to name his only grandchild, Margaret, Maid of Norway, as his heir in 1284. Following his death and his second wife’s stillbirth in 1286, the elected Guardians of the Realm acknowledged Margaret to be the successor to the Scottish throne. They were involved in the negotiations of Margaret’s marriage that resulted in the Treaty of Birgham (1290). Margaret’s untimely death in 1290 meant that the treaty was never finalised.

    The separate kingdoms of Scotland and England as shown on a 13th-century map of Europe
    The separate kingdoms of Scotland and England as shown on a 13th-century map of Europe

    Death of Alexander III of Scotland

    • Alexander III was the King of Scots from 1249 to 1286. His succession to the throne at the age of seven led to the erection of a regency. An embittered struggle for control over affairs between the two Scottish rival factions marked the years of his minority.
    • Alexander III’s marriage to Margaret, daughter of Henry III of England, in 1251 secured close ties with his southern neighbour, and the English king’s assistance was vital in preventing a civil war in Scotland.
    • By 1258, Alexander III was forced to depend upon himself and successfully united the different noble factions behind his rule.
    • By the time he attained his majority, he was in full control of Scotland. His kingdom also expanded in 1266 following a skirmish with Norway.
    • Scotland saw a period of relative peace and prosperity during the reign of Alexander III. Many historians consider this period the ‘Golden Age’.
    • Alexander III had three children with Margaret of England, namely Margaret, Alexander and David. His wife died in 1275 and he did not seek a second wife, instead focusing on securing suitable marriages for his surviving children.
    • His firstborn child Margaret was betrothed to Eric II, king of Norway, in 1281, to help calm the tensions that arose between Norway and Scotland in the preceding decade.
    • His second child Alexander, heir apparent to the throne, was married to Margaret of Flanders in 1282. 
    • His youngest child David died at a young age in 1281.
    • The other two surviving children of Alexander III died in the early 1280s. Margaret died during or shortly after childbirth in 1283, while the heir apparent died a week after his birthday in 1284. This left the question of succession one of urgent importance.
    • Alexander III immediately sought a second marriage and believed that Yolande of Dreux, whose family was a member of the cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty, was a suitable match.
    • This marriage was motivated by the pressing need for a male heir and the desire to emphasise Scottish independence from England, with the Scottish king distancing himself from Edward I of England.
    • The marriage was celebrated in October 1285 at Jedburgh Abbey at the Scottish border, attended by prominent Scottish and French nobles.
    Depiction of Alexander III
    Depiction of Alexander III
    • In March 1286, Scotland found itself without a king after Alexander III was found dead on the beach under the cliffs at Kinghorn in Fife.
    • He possibly fell from his horse while travelling on a stormy night to visit his new wife, whose birthday was coming up. He got separated from his escort and was never seen alive again.
    • The king was told not to make the journey to Fife due to the adverse weather conditions.
    • Despite the repeated pleas of the nobles accompanying him, he insisted on travelling in a storm with his retinue and local guides.
    • This began the chain of events resulting in a succession crisis in Scotland, as there was no surviving male heir to the throne.

    Recognition of the succession of Margaret, Maid of Norway

    • Following the death of Alexander III, Yolande moved to Stirling Castle and claimed that she was pregnant. This gave some hope that the queen dowager would birth the successor to the Scottish throne. In fact, leading Scottish noble families waited in anticipation for it.
    • In April 1286, the Scottish nobles assembled at a hastily convened Parliament at Scone, with the intention to secure the peaceful transition of authority to the declared heir to the throne. A group, known as the Guardians of the Realm, was ‘appointed by and governed in the name of the community of the realm’.
    • The elected Guardians were regarded as the most politically and socially prominent figures in society. They were practically in charge of running the kingdom until a new monarch was placed in power.
    • The legitimacy of their rule was especially relevant, as the threat to political stability was great because the interests of powerful families were often in competition.
    • Alexander III did leave one surviving heir, his three-year-old granddaughter, Margaret, Maid of Norway.
    • She was named as Alexander III’s heir-presumptive in 1284 in order to ensure the line of succession in the absence of a male successor. At the time of Alexander III’s death, she was in her father’s court in Norway.
    • The Guardians would govern Scotland until Margaret, Maid of Norway, arrived to ascend to the throne or Yolande bore a child who would be favoured over Margaret.
    • In November 1286, Yolande gave birth to a stillborn child. When this news spread, tension within certain elements of the political community arose.
    • Following Yolande’s stillbirth, bishops and nobles honoured their 1284 oath recognising Margaret, Maid of Norway, as heir to the throne. 
    • Accepting Margaret, Maid of Norway, as heir was problematic, due to the following issues:
      • Child mortality was high during the period, and the heir’s survival was a concern to many.
      • The erection of a regency during the heir’s minority might cause intense rivalry between noble houses.
      • The heir would need a husband to help her rule the kingdom. A foreign alliance would be ideal but would subject Scotland to outside rule.
      • A female ruler was thought to be incapable of leading the kingdom to war, making Scotland vulnerable to attacks.
    • The Guardians then began making arrangements for Margaret, Maid of Norway, to be taken to Scotland. They also started the process of installing her as the new monarch to ensure peace and prevent further political turmoil.

    Marriage negotiations

    • Margaret’s father, Eric II of Norway, sent his most prominent minister to Scotland to claim the kingdom for his daughter. This was followed by a rebellion led by Robert Bruce, 5th Lord of Annandale, and his son, Robert, Earl of Carrick. It was successfully crushed in early 1287. The unstable situation in Scotland made Eric II unwilling to see his daughter leave Norway.
    • The Guardians soon set out looking for a suitable husband for Margaret, and so negotiations to arrange the marriage of Margaret and the young son of Edward I of England, Prince Edward, began. 
    • Eric II was keen to secure the future of his daughter as Queen of Scots and sent envoys to the English king in May 1289 to force the issue.
    • He was indebted to Edward I for the latter’s intervention in settling the outstanding dowry that was owed by Scotland to him. This meant that Edward I had a say in deciding what would happen to the Scottish throne, and could therefore make the most of the situation.
    • As the two rulers were discussing the union of their children as parents, the Guardians, which finally met with English and Norwegian envoys at Salisbury in October, did not need to be heavily involved and could only observe the negotiations.
    • The Treaty of Salisbury was concluded on 6 November 1289 and stipulated the following:
      • Edward I of England was responsible for the transport of Margaret, Maid of Norway, to England.
      • Margaret was to be free of any previous marriage contracts, and the English king could veto who would marry her.
      • She was to be raised in the English court until Scotland was made safe for her to take up her right as queen.
    • A papal dispensation, requested by Edward I and issued on 16 November 1289, stated the Pope’s approval of the marriage between Margaret and Prince Edward.
    • The Guardians along with other clergymen and nobles expressed their firm approval of the English match, which strongly implied that Prince Edward would be king following the union.
    • Negotiations about Margaret’s marriage, dower, succession, and how England and Scotland would be united carried on into 1290. 
    • In May, diplomatic difficulties prevented a luxuriously provisioned ship to fetch Margaret.
    • The Treaty of Birgham was drawn up on 18 July and agreed to at Northampton on 28 August.

    The Treaty of Birgham confirmed that Scotland was to remain separate and divided from England according to its rightful boundaries, free in itself and without subjection,’ under the condition that Margaret would marry Prince Edward, and Margaret alone would be proclaimed as monarch at Scone, with a new seal to be created only for the Queen of Scots, not a joint seal for wife and husband.

    • The treaty meant that:
      • No Parliament governing Scotland would be held in England.
      • Scottish laws, rights and customs would be preserved.
      • The Scottish Church was to remain independent of the influence of the English Church.
      • The Scottish nobles were obliged to pay homage to the Scottish monarch, not the English king.
      • Landowners in Scotland were to retain their landholdings and not be disinherited.
      • The agreement would only be finalised once the marriage took place.
    • The provisions of the treaty clearly indicated that Scotland and England were to remain separate kingdoms.
    • Once the royal marriage took place, the seal would be changed and include her husband, who would be the king. This should have resolved any concern in Scotland regarding the continuing independence of the nation.
    • By late August 1290, Margaret was ready to travel from Bergen to Scotland with her entourage. However, she fell ill during the journey and died in Orkney, a Norwegian archipelago off the coast of Scotland, in late September.
    • The exact cause of death remains unknown, but it is likely that she caught pneumonia and did not recover.
    • A few days later, news of Margaret’s death reached the Scottish nobles who had gathered at Scone in preparations for the child queen’s proclamation. 
    • Margaret was brought back to Bergen to her father and was buried in the north wall of the chancel of Christ Church.
    Portrait of Edward I
    Portrait of Edward I
    • Margaret’s death meant that the Treaty of Birgham was never formally enacted, and so its terms were not legally binding. Edward I claimed that in the absence of the royal marriage, he did not need to honour the promise of Scottish independence.
    • The English negotiators had included sufficient reservations to render the independence clauses useless. During the earlier discussions, the date of marriage and dowry were not set.
    • On the contrary, the Guardians felt differently, arguing that Edward I had given a written promise to acknowledge Scottish independence, which did not explicitly stipulate that its claims were solely valid through marriage.
    • Disputes over the status of the Treaty of Birgham would impact the rest of the political crisis about overlordship and the succession crisis.

    Frequently Asked Questions

    • What was the Treaty of Birgham?

      The Treaty of Birgham was an agreement made in 1290 between the kingdoms of Scotland and England to secure Scotland's independence while facilitating a marriage between Margaret, the Maid of Norway (the heir to the Scottish throne), and Edward of Caernarfon (the future Edward II of England).

    • Why was the Treaty of Birgham important?

      The treaty was significant because it aimed to preserve Scotland's independence during a time of potential political instability following the death of Alexander III, the Scottish king. The treaty also sought to prevent Scotland from being absorbed into England through Margaret and Edward's marriage.

    • Who were the key figures involved in the Treaty of Birgham?

      The key figures involved were Margaret, the Maid of Norway, the granddaughter of Alexander III; Edward I of England, the father of Edward of Caernarfon; and the Guardians of Scotland, the appointed rulers of Scotland during the interregnum.