Xi'an Incident Worksheets
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Table of Contents
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Summary
- Background and Causes
- The Incident
- Kidnapping of Chiang Kai-shek
- Negotiations and Demands
- Role of the CCP
- Release of Chiang Kai-shek
- Aftermath and Significance
Key Facts And Information
Let’s know more about the Xi'an Incident!
The Xi'an Incident, a Chinese political crisis, occurred in December 1936 during the Chinese Civil War. Two Nationalist generals, Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng, kidnapped Chiang Kai-shek, the Nationalist leader, to force a united front with the Communists against Japan. The incident resulted in a truce in the civil war and the formation of a united front against Japan.
Zhang, Yang and Chiang, who were involved in the Xi'an Incident
Background and Causes
The Second Sino-Japanese War
- By the mid-1930s, China found itself in a vulnerable position due to the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War. The conflict, ignited by the Japanese Empire's expansionist ambitions, had begun with the invasion of Manchuria in 1931. This act of aggression was followed by invasions into Chinese territory.
- The threat to China's sovereignty was undeniable, yet internal divisions troubled the nation, limiting its ability to establish a unified resistance against the advancing Japanese forces.
The Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party
- At the centre of this internal struggle was the rivalry between the ruling Kuomintang (KMT), led by Chiang Kai-shek, and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The two parties, despite briefly collaborating in a United Front during the 1920s, held different visions for China's future.
KMT and CCP's Differences:
- Kuomintang
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- Nationalism, aimed at a capitalist republic based on Western models
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- Favoured private ownership, foreign investment and a market-driven economy
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- Largely maintained the existing social hierarchy, though with reforms aimed at modernisation
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- Relied heavily on conventional warfare and sought to maintain a centralised military command
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- Sought alliances with Western powers and aimed to integrate China into the global capitalist system
- Chinese Communist Party
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- Communism aimed for a socialist revolution and a complete societal transformation based on Marxist-Leninist principles
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- Advocated for collectivisation, state control of industries and the redistribution of wealth
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- Sought to dismantle traditional power structures and create a classless society
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- Employed guerrilla tactics and emphasised the importance of gaining popular support in rural areas
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- Distrusted Western imperialism and looked to the Soviet Union for support
- This ideological divide led to the collapse of the United Front in 1927. The KMT, fearing the CCP's growing influence, launched a violent purge of communists within their ranks, marking the beginning of the Chinese Civil War. This conflict divided the Chinese nation and consumed resources that could have been directed towards resisting Japanese aggression.
Chiang Kai-shek's Policy
- Chiang Kai-shek, a committed nationalist and adamant opponent of communism, saw the CCP as a threat to China's unity and stability. This belief motivated his policy of 'internal unification before external resistance', which prioritised the elimination of the Communists even as the Japanese threat was a pressing concern.
- Chiang argued that fighting a two-front war against both Japan and the CCP would harm China, leaving it vulnerable to complete collapse. He believed that a unified China, even under KMT rule, would be better positioned to resist Japanese aggression. This policy, however, alienated many Chinese, who saw Japan's blatant aggression as the more immediate threat. They viewed Chiang's focus on the CCP as misguided, accusing him of prioritising partisan interests over the nation's survival.
Chiang Kai-shek
Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng
- Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng, two prominent military leaders, grew more and more disappointed with Chiang's stance. As commanders of significant military forces in Northwest China, they experienced the full impact of Japanese aggression while being instructed to prioritise fighting the CCP. They believed that a united front against Japan was essential for China's survival and saw Chiang's stubborn refusal to compromise as bordering on national betrayal.
- The resentment towards Chiang's policies, along with the escalating Japanese aggression, culminated in a major event in the city of Xi'an in December 1936.
The Incident
Kidnapping of Chiang Kai-shek
- The events leading up to the kidnapping of Chiang Kai-shek were a carefully orchestrated plan. In November 1936, Zhang Xueliang, under the guise of boosting troop morale, invited Chiang to Xi'an. Chiang, unaware of Zhang's true intentions, agreed to the visit. Behind the scenes, Zhang informed Mao Tse-tung, the leader of the CCP, of his plan.
- Upon arriving in Xi'an, Chiang took up residence in his usual headquarters at the Huaqing Pool complex. In the early hours of 12 December, bodyguards loyal to Zhang and Yang Hucheng stormed Chiang's quarters. The latter, caught off guard, managed to escape his cabin but sustained an injury in the process. Despite his efforts, Zhang's troops captured him later that morning.
- News of the kidnapping threw the Nationalist government of China into disarray. High-ranking officials were divided in their response. He Yingqin, the chairman of the Military Affairs Commission, called for an immediate military response and suggested marching on Xi'an right away and capturing the important city of Tongguan. Others, including Soong Mei-ling and Kong Xiangxi, urged a more cautious approach, favouring negotiation to ensure Chiang's safety.
Negotiations and Demands
- With their leader held captive, the Nationalist government was dangerously close to falling apart. Zhang and Yang, taking advantage of the situation, moved quickly to articulate their demands.
- They issued a carefully worded telegram addressed to the Nationalist government and the Chinese people, outlining the terms for Chiang's release. They issued eight demands, which reflected the growing sentiment among many Chinese and called for a shift in national policy.
Demands:
- End the Civil War: Immediately cease hostilities between the KMT and CCP, redirecting resources to resist Japanese aggression.
- Form a United Front Against Japan: Create a united front with all Chinese political factions, including the CCP, to resist Japanese imperialism.
- Freedom of Speech and Assembly: End the suppression of political dissent and release political prisoners.
- Release of Patriotic Leaders: Release individuals imprisoned for their anti-Japanese activities.
- Stop the Persecution of Student Movements: End the suppression on student protests against Japanese aggression.
- Guarantee Civil Liberties: Respect basic civil liberties, including freedom of speech, assembly and the press.
- Implementation of Sun Yat-sen's Will: Adhere to the principles of national unity and democracy espoused by Sun Yat-sen.
- Convene a National Salvation Conference: Gather representatives from all political parties and social groups to discuss national salvation and resistance against Japan.
Role of the CCP
- The Xi'an Incident, as the kidnapping of Chiang Kai-shek came to be known, presented the CCP with an unexpected opportunity.
- Although Zhang and Yang's actions initially caught them off guard, the CCP leadership saw the opportunity to further their objectives.
- On 16 December 1936, Zhou Enlai and Lin Boqu arrived in Xi'an, representing the CCP, ready to negotiate Chiang's release. Chiang, initially resistant to negotiating with the Communists, relented when he realised his fate depended on their goodwill.
- Soong Mei-ling, the wife of Chiang Kai-shek, arrived in Xi'an on 22 December, further reinforcing the situation. Fearing a potential coup or military intervention from Nationalist hardliners, she travelled to Xi'an to secure her husband's safe return.
- On 24 December, Chiang and Zhou met for the first time since Zhou served under him at the Whampoa Military Academy over a decade earlier. Despite the tension, the meeting was civil.
- Zhou appealed to Chiang's sense of duty, emphasising that the Red Army would submit to his command if he ended the civil war and resisted Japan.
- Throughout the negotiations, the CCP advocated for a peaceful resolution. They urged both Chiang and the Nationalist government to prioritise national unity against the Japanese threat. The CCP supported Zhang and Yang's demands, particularly ending the civil war and forming a united front against Japan.
- The CCP's shift to become negotiating partners with their former adversaries, the KMT, demonstrated their pragmatism. They recognised the gravity of the Japanese threat and prioritised national unity over ideological differences, which was essential in finding a resolution to the crisis.
Release of Chiang Kai-shek
- The negotiations in Xi'an lasted for two weeks. Chiang, initially resistant to any concessions, saw the demands as an attack on his authority. However, pressure mounted on him from multiple directions.
- Zhang and Yang remained firm in their demands. The CCP, through Zhou, advocated for a peaceful resolution and national unity. Public opinion also favoured ending the civil war and uniting against Japan.
- Faced with these pressures, Chiang gradually softened his stance. He recognised the potential for disaster if a resolution wasn't reached. Eventually, a breakthrough emerged. While not agreeing to all demands, Chiang agreed to the most crucial ones: ending the civil war and forming a united front against Japan. On 26 December 1936, Chiang Kai-shek was released.
Aftermath and Significance
- The Xi'an Incident led to a temporary ceasefire in the Chinese Civil War, but the situation remained unstable and uncertain. Chiang Kai-shek returned to Nanjing and announced a ceasefire. However, he broke his promises made in Xi'an, imprisoned Zhang Xueliang and charged him with treason. He then deployed 37 army divisions to surround the Northeastern Army and force their surrender.
- The Northeastern Army was divided on how to respond. Some wanted to fight the KMT, while the CCP urged a peaceful resolution to avoid weakening China against Japan. The CCP negotiated with both sides for a peaceful outcome.
- Initially, the Northeastern Army seemed ready to resist, but their senior generals decided to surrender, angering the more radical officers. One general was assassinated, but this turned the majority of soldiers against resistance. The Northeastern Army surrendered peacefully and was divided into new units. Yang Hucheng was later arrested and executed, while Zhang Xueliang remained under house arrest for decades. These actions highlighted the mistrust between the KMT and CCP.
- The Xi'an Incident, ending with Chiang Kai-shek's release and the agreement to form a united front against Japan, had a significant impact on China. The most immediate consequence of the Xi'an Incident was the Second United Front between the KMT and the CCP.
- This alliance, formed out of necessity, effectively ended the Chinese Civil War, allowing both sides to focus on the Japanese threat. The united front, though fragile, was crucial for Chinese resistance in the Second Sino-Japanese War.
- However, the underlying tensions between the Nationalists and Communists remained. The truce was more of a pause than a reconciliation. Both sides used this period to consolidate power, setting the stage for future conflict.
- The Xi'an Incident also impacted Chiang's leadership. Being held captive and forced to make concessions damaged his image as an authority figure. The incident exposed divisions within the Nationalist government and dissatisfaction with Chiang's policies.
- The Xi'an Incident revealed the complexities of Chinese politics in the 1930s. It showed the struggle between national unity and partisan interests, the threat of Japanese imperialism and the growing appeal of communism.
- The incident, though resolved through negotiation, influenced the course of the Second Sino-Japanese War and the subsequent power struggle in China.
Frequently Asked Questions
- What was the Xi'an Incident?
The Xi'an Incident was a political and military crisis in December 1936 in Xi'an, China. It involved the kidnapping of Chiang Kai-shek, the leader of the Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang or KMT), by his own generals, Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng.
- Who were the leading figures involved in the Xi'an Incident?
Chiang Kai-shek, Zhang Xueliang, and Yang Hucheng were the main figures involved. Zhou Enlai from the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) also played a significant role in negotiating the crisis resolution.
- How was the Xi'an Incident resolved?
The Xi'an Incident was resolved through negotiations, mediated mainly by Zhou Enlai from the CCP. Chiang Kai-shek agreed to form a Second United Front with the Communists to resist the Japanese invasion. In return, Zhang Xueliang released Chiang and ended the standoff.